Cambios

One of the main objections to evolution is the origin of the enormous amounts of genetic information content that is needed for an organism to evolve from microbes to humans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sarfati, Jonathan|authorlinkenlaceautor=Jonathan Sarfati|title=[[The Greatest Hoax on Earth?]]:Refuting Dawkins on Evolution|location=Atlanta, Georgia|publisher=Creation Book Publishers|year=2010|page=43|isbn=978-0-949906-73-1}}</ref> Not only has no credible source been identified where information could be produced by natural processes, but in contrast the adaptation of living organism involves a reduction of the information in the genome through natural selection.<ref>{{cite book|author=Spetner, Lee M|authorlinkenlaceautor=Lee Spetner|title=[[Not by Chance!]] |publisher=The Judaica Press|year=1998|location=Brooklyn, New York|page=127-160|chapter=5-Can Random Variation Build Information?|isbn=1-880582-24-4}}</ref>

Royal Truman, en su análisis publicada en el ''[[Journal of Creation]]'' analiza dos familias de enfoques: La primera derivada del trabajo de Shannon y la segunda derivada de la obra de [[Werner Gitt|Gitt]].<ref name=truman1>{{cita publicación|título=Information Theory-Part 1:Overview of Key Ideas|autor=Truman, Royal|año=2012|publicación=[[Journal of Creation]]|volumen=26|número=3|página=101-106|issn=1036-2916}}</ref> Truman también menciona la definición algorítmica de la información, desarrollada por Solomonoff, Kolmogorov y con contribuciones de [[Gregory Chaitin]] pero que no ha sido discutida en su artículo.<ref name=truman1 /> De acuerdo con [[Stephen Meyer]], Los científicos suelen distinguir dos tipos básicos de información: la información significativa o funcional y la llamada información de Shannon<ref name=doubt>{{cita libro|autor=Meyer, Stephen C|autorlinkenlaceautor=Stephen Meyer|título=Darwin's Doubt: The Explosive Origin of Animal Life and the Case for Intelligent Design|editorial=HarperOne/HarperCollins Publishers|ubicación=Seattle, WA|año=2013|página=164-168|isbn=978-0-06-207147-7}}</ref> (llamado así por Claude Shannon, quien desarrolló la teoría de la información estadística). La información de Shannon no es realmente lo mismo que la información significativa. Información significativa, codificada en un lenguaje, se puede medir estadísticamente, por Shannon, pero la medida es la redundancia de los símbolos, la denominada entropía de Shannon,<ref group=nota>Entropía de Shannon es la imprevisibilidad media en una variable aleatoria, que es equivalente a su contenido de información.</ref> no es una medida del "contenido de información", o el significado. Shannon, por ejemplo, se puede utiliza para medir el "contenido de información" de un conjunto de símbolos al azar que no tienen ningún significado.

[[Dr. Werner Gitt]] propone conceptualmente cinco diferentes niveles de información<ref name=Gitt>{{cita libro|autor=Gitt, Werner|autorlinkenlaceautor=Werner Gitt|título=In the Beginning was Information: A Scientist Explains the Incredible Design in Nature|año=2005|editorial=Master Books|ubicación=Green Forest, AR|página=49-87|isbn=978-0-89051-461-0}}</ref>:

Either way, many scientists in various fields of science consider living organisms as having biological information. [[Gregory Chaitin]], a renowned Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist, sees [[DNA]] as a computer program for calculating the organism and the relationship between male and female as a way of transmission of biological information from the first to the last.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chaitin, Gregory|authorlinkenlaceautor=Gregory Chaitin|title=Meta Math!: The Quest for Omega|publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|year=2005|page=66-74|url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/math/0404335.pdf|isbn=978-1-4000-7797-7}}</ref> David Baltimore, an American biologist and Nobel laureate, stated that "Modern Biology is a science of information".<ref name=uncensored>{{cite book|title=[[Intelligent Design Uncensored: An Easy-to-Understand Guide to the Controversy]]|author=[[William Dembski|Dembski, William A.]]; Witt, Jonathan|page=72-73|publisher=InterVarsity Press|location=Downers Grove, Illinois|isbn=978-0-8308-3742-7|year=2010}}</ref> Edmund Jack Ambrose, quoted by Davis and Kenyon, said that "There is a message if the order of bases in DNA can be translated by the cell into some vital activity necessary for survival or reproduction".<ref name=pandas>{{cite book|title=Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins|author=Davis, Percival; [[Dean H. Kenyon|Kenyon, Dean H]]|publisher=Haughton Publishing Company|location=Dallas, Texas|edition=2nd|page=64|isbn=0-914513-40-0}}</ref> [[Richard Dawkins]], a British ethologist and evolutionary biologist, has written that life itself is the flow of a river of DNA which he also denominates a river of information.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dawkins, Richard|authorlinkenlaceautor=Richard Dawkins|title=River Out of Eden|year=1995|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|page=4|isbn=978-0-465-06990-3}}</ref> [[Stephen Meyer]] points out that producing organismal form requires the generation of information in Shannon's sense. But he goes further to observe that "like meaningful sentences or lines of computer code, genes and proteins are also specified with respect to function."<ref>{{cite book| author=Meyer, Stephen C|authorlinkenlaceautor=Stephen Meyer|editor=Dembski, William A|title=Darwin's Nemesis: Philip Johnson and the Intelligent Design Movement|publisher=Inter-Varsity Press|location=Downers Grove, IL|year=2006|page=178-179|chapter=12-The Origin of Biological Information and the Higher Taxonomic Categories|isbn=978-0-8308-2836-4}}</ref> Meyer points out that the information contained in the DNA has a high degree of specificity. [[David Berlinski]] an American philosopher, educator, and author, also draws a parallel between biology and information theory. In his book "The Deniable Darwin & Other Essays" he stated that:

{{cquote|Whatever else a living creature may be...[it] is ''also'' a combinatorial system, its organization controlled by a strange, a hidden and obscure text, one written in a biochemical code. It is an algorithm that lies at the humming heart of life, ferrying information from one set of symbols (the nucleic acids) to another (the proteins)<ref>{{cite book|title=[[The Deniable Darwin and Other Essays]]|author=Berlinski, David|authorlinkenlaceautor=David Berlinski|year=2010|publisher=Discovery Institute Press|location=Seattle|page=153|isbn=978-0-979014-12-3}} </ref>}}

Manfred Eigen, Bernd Olaf-Küppers and John Maynard Smith and many other biologists have stated that the origin of information is biology's central problem.<ref name=uncensored /> Some, like Manfred Eigen argue that it is possible for the spontaneous, stochastic, emergence of information out of chaos.<ref name=wilder>{{cite book|author=Wilder-Smith, A. E.|authorlinkenlaceautor=A. E. Wilder-Smith|title=The Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Theory|publisher=The Word For Today Publishers|location=Costa Mesa, California|year=1987|page=23-51|isbn=0-936728-1B}}</ref> In his book ''Steps Towards Life'' Eigen states what he regards as the central problem faced in origins of life research: "Our task is to find an algorithm, a natural law that leads to the origin of information".<ref name=dembski1>{{cite book|author=Dembski, William A|authorlinkenlaceautor=William Dembski|title=Intelligent Design:The Bridge Between Science & Theology|publisher=IVP Academic|location=Downers Grove, Illinois|year=1999|page=153-183|isbn=0-8308-2314-X}}</ref><ref group=nota>The Eigen's book quoted by Dembski is {{cite book|author=Eigen, Manfred|title=Steps Towards Life: A Perspective on Evolution|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1992|page=12|isbn=0-19854751-X}}</ref> [[A. E. Wilder-Smith]], in contrast, states that

In his book ''[[A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization]]'', [[Dean L. Overman]] builds a compelling case that life is no accident. It is not possible to bring the entire argument of the book here. Overman poses that a central distinction between living and non-living matter is the existence of a genome or a composite of genetic messages which carry enough information content to replicate and maintain the organism.<ref name=overman>{{cite book |author=Overman, Dean L|authorlinkenlaceautor=Dean L. Overman |editor-last= |title=[[A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization]]|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham|year=1997|page=33-102|isbn=0-8476-8966-2}}</ref> The information contained in the genetic code, like any information or message, is not made of matter. The meaning of the genetic code can not be reduced to a physical or chemical property.<ref name=overman /> Information content is the minimum number of instructions necessary to specify the structure and, in living systems, information content requires an enormous amount of specified instructions.<ref name=overman /> According to Overman, many have proposed calculations for the probability of complex organic compounds such as enzymes, proteins or DNA molecules emerge by chance. Many have concluded that this probability is extremely low, virtually an impossibility.<ref name=overman /><ref group=nota>Sir Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe calculated the probability of appearance of the different enzymes forming in one place at one time to produce a single bacterium in 1 in 10^40,000. Hubert Yockey calculated the probability for the appearance of the iso-l-cytochrome c at random as being 2 x 10^-44. Walter L. Bradley and Charles B. Thaxton calculated the probability of a random formation of amino acids into a protein as being 4.9 x 10^-191. Harold Morrison obtained in his calculations the impressive number of 1 in 10^{100,000,000,000} for a single celled bacterium to develop from accidental or chance processes. As quoted by Overman in the book: {{cite book |last=Overman|first=Dean L|editor-first= |editor-last= |title=A Case Against Accident and Self-Organization|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham|year=1997|page=33-102|isbn=0-8476-8966-2}}</ref>

{{cquote|The failure to give a plausible evolutionary explanation for the origin of life casts a number of shadows over the whole field of evolutionary speculation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Denton, Michael|authorlinkenlaceautor=Michael Denton|title=[[Evolution: A Theory in Crisis]]|page=271|publisher=Adler & Adler|location=Chevy Chase, MD|year=1985|isbn=0-917561-52-X}}</ref>}}

According to [[Jonathan Sarfati]], the main scientific objection to evolution is not whether changes, whatever their extent, occur through time. The key issue is the origin of the enormous amount of genetic that is needed in order for a microbe to evolve, ultimately reaching the complexity of humans.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sarfati, Jonathan|authorlinkenlaceautor=Jonathan Sarfati|title=[[The Greatest Hoax on Earth?]]:Refuting Dawkins on Evolution|location=Atlanta, Georgia|publisher=Creation Book Publishers|year=2010|page=43|isbn=978-0-949906-73-1}}</ref> [[Dr. Lee Spetner]] points out that in living organisms, adaptation often take place by reducing the information in the genome and notes that the vertebrate eye or its immune system could never have evolved by loss of information alone.<ref>{{cite book|author=Spetner, Lee M|authorlinkenlaceautor=Lee Spetner|title=[[Not by Chance!]] |publisher=The Judaica Press|year=1998|location=Brooklyn, New York|page=127-160|chapter=5-Can Random Variation Build Information?|isbn=1-880582-24-4}}</ref>